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How Government Works

Purpose: give new voters a clear, neutral, one-page tour of how American government is structured, how laws and budgets are made, how federal, state, and local powers fit together, and how you can participate effectively.

Quick idea: Skim the bullets first, then flip a few cards for deeper tips. Everything is on one page, no tabs.

The Constitution & Federalism

Core Principles

  • Popular sovereignty: Government power comes from the people through elections and representation.

  • Limited government: The Constitution grants specific powers; everything else is restrained or reserved.

  • Rule of law: Laws apply equally to leaders and citizens; courts resolve disputes.

  • Separation of powers: Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches share and check power.

  • Federalism: Power is divided between the national government and the states.

  • Individual rights: Bill of Rights and later amendments protect civil liberties and due process.

Federal vs. State Powers

  • Federal (enumerated): Defense, foreign policy, currency, interstate trade, immigration enforcement.

  • State (reserved): Policing, education systems, family law, most elections, local governance.

  • Shared (concurrent): Taxation, transportation infrastructure, environmental enforcement.

  • Supremacy Clause: Federal law generally prevails when validly enacted within its powers.

  • Laboratories of democracy: States pilot policy ideas that can scale nationally.

Who Does What in Washington

Legislative Branch (Congress)

  • Two chambers: House of Representatives (population-based districts; 2-year terms) and Senate (2 per state; 6-year terms).

  • Main jobs: Drafts and debates bills, controls federal spending, declares war, oversees the Executive Branch.

  • Leadership: Speaker of the House; Senate party leaders and committee chairs manage agendas.

  • Committees: Where most work happens... hearings, amendments, bipartisan deals, and oversight.

  • Representation: Constituents contact offices to share views, request help, and shape priorities.

Executive Branch (President & Departments)

  • President: Enforces laws, commands the military, conducts diplomacy, signs or vetoes bills.

  • Cabinet & agencies: Departments write rules, implement programs, and issue guidance.

  • Executive orders: Direct agencies within lawful authority; cannot replace statutes.

  • Budget proposal: The White House proposes; Congress appropriates; agencies execute.

  • Oversight: Inspectors General and Congress investigate waste, fraud, and abuse.

Judicial Branch (Federal Courts)

  • Role: Interprets laws and the Constitution; resolves disputes; can strike down unconstitutional acts.

  • Structure: District Courts (trials) → Courts of Appeals → Supreme Court.

  • Judicial review: Landmark decisions can redefine rights and government powers.

  • Independence: Lifetime federal judges (good behavior) to reduce political pressure.

  • Precedent: Past rulings guide current decisions unless the Court changes direction.

How a Bill Becomes Law (In Practice)

Tip: Follow bills at Congress.gov (text, status, votes).

Steps & Checkpoints

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  • Idea → bill drafted by member(s) of Congress and staff.

  • Introduced in House or Senate; assigned to a committee.

  • Hearings, expert testimony, and revisions (“markups”).

  • Committee vote → floor debate → chamber vote.

  • Other chamber repeats process; differences reconciled in conference.

  • Final identical bill passes both chambers.

  • President signs or vetoes; Congress can override veto with two-thirds in each chamber.

  • Agencies implement; courts may review challenges.

Why Bills Fail (Common Reasons)​

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  • Insufficient support in committee or leadership does not schedule a vote.

  • Budgetary impact or “pay-for” disagreements.

  • Constitutional or jurisdictional concerns.

  • Election-year timing or partisan standoffs.

  • Stakeholder opposition or competing priorities.

The Federal Budget, Taxes, and Spending

Budget Basics

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  • Fiscal year runs Oct 1 → Sep 30.

  • President submits a budget proposal; Congress writes appropriations.

  • Mandatory (e.g., Social Security, Medicare) vs discretionary (defense and non-defense agencies).

  • Continuing resolutions keep government open if bills are late.

Revenue & Debt

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  • Major revenues: individual income, payroll, corporate taxes; tariffs and fees.

  • Deficits = annual shortfalls; debt = accumulated deficits.

  • Debt limit requires congressional action to adjust borrowing authority.

Oversight & Accountability

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  • Congressional Budget Office (CBO) provides nonpartisan analysis.

  • Government Accountability Office (GAO) audits agencies and programs.

  • Inspectors General monitor waste, fraud, and abuse.

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Checks and Balances (Flip Cards)

Congress ↔ President

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Who checks whom?

  • Congress controls funding, can override vetoes, confirms nominees, and can impeach.

  • President can veto bills, issue executive directives, and set agency priorities.

Flip

Courts ↔ Congress

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​Lawmaking & Review

  • Courts interpret laws and can strike down unconstitutional statutes.

  • Congress can revise statutes, shape jurisdiction (within limits), and confirm judges.

Flip

Courts ↔ President

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Law, enforcement, and rights

  • Courts review executive actions for legality and constitutionality.

  • President nominates judges and enforces court decisions through agencies.

Flip

History of the U.S. Government - Key Moments

  • 1787: Constitutional Convention drafts the U.S. Constitution (separation of powers, federalism).

  • 1789: First Congress convenes; Washington sworn in; Judiciary Act establishes federal courts.

  • 1791: Bill of Rights ratified (first ten amendments securing core civil liberties).

  • 1803: Marbury v. Madison establishes judicial review.

  • 1861–1865: Civil War; followed by the Reconstruction Amendments (13th, 14th, 15th).

  • 1913: 16th and 17th Amendments (income tax; direct election of Senators).

  • 1920: 19th Amendment guarantees women’s suffrage nationwide.

  • 1930s: New Deal expands federal programs and regulatory state.

  • 1954: Brown v. Board of Education desegregates public schools.

  • 1964–1965: Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act strengthen equal rights and ballot access.

  • 1971: 26th Amendment lowers the voting age to 18.

  • 1973: War Powers Resolution sets procedures for military deployments.

  • 2001: Post-9/11 changes in national security authorities and homeland security structure.

  • 2010s–Present: Ongoing debates over health care, executive authority, elections, and federal-state roles.

The First Ten Amendments 

State and Local Government

States

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  • Governor executes laws; legislature passes statutes; courts interpret state constitutions and laws.

  • States handle education standards, licensing, family law, much of criminal law, and elections.

Counties & Cities

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  • Police, fire, public works, zoning, property taxes, and local ordinances.

  • School boards set district policy, budgets, and superintendent oversight.

Why It Matters

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  • Most day-to-day services are state or local: roads, schools, utilities, permits, parks.

  • Turnout is often lower locally, your single vote can have outsized impact.

Key Terms (Fast Bullets)

Amendment

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  • Formal change to the Constitution requiring supermajorities and state ratification.

Appropriation

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  • Law that provides funding to federal agencies for specific purposes.

Filibuster

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  • Formal change to the Constitution requiring supermajorities and state ratification.

Judicial Review

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  • Court authority to evaluate constitutionality of laws and actions.

Voter Checklist

  • Confirm registration and polling place (or request mail ballot if eligible).

  • Preview the ballot; research candidates and measures from multiple sources.

  • Plan your voting time and transportation.

  • Bring any required identification (check state rules).

  • Vote the issues that matter most to you; local, state, and federal.

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